Adaptive and transformative learning in environmental water management: Implementing the Crocodile River’s Ecological Reserve in Kruger National Park, South Africa

The Anthropocene is characterised by ubiquitous loss of biodiversity at unprecedented rates and scales (Kingsford, Bino & Porter 2017a). Globally, this biodiversity loss is severest across the freshwater realm (Albert et al. 2021; Vorosmarty et al. 2010), which exhibits the highest species diversity per unit area (Pittock et al. 2015). Over the last half century, alteration to natural flows in rivers – from land-use change, water over-abstraction and building of dams – has contributed towards more than 80% reduction in the freshwater species population (Harwood et al. 2017; WWF 2020 – Freshwater Living Planet Index). Currently, one-third of the world’s river basins are severely water depleted (Harwood et al. 2017), thereby, rendering the quality and quantity of water to Freshwater biodiversity loss in the Anthropocene escalates the need for successful environmental water management to sustain human benefitting ecosystem services. Of the world’s river basins, one-third are now severely water depleted, rendering the quality and quantity of water to maintain or restore freshwater ecosystem integrity increasingly urgent. However, managing environmental water is intricate because of complexity and uncertainty in interacting social and biophysical system components, and trade-offs between costs and benefits of implementing environmental flows. Learning enabled adaptive management – embracing the uncertainty – is essential; however, practising adaptive management (worldwide) is challenging; single-, doubleand triple-loop learning is required, along with social learning, to tackle complex problems. There is progressive realisation of environmental flows (Ecological Reserve) in the Crocodile River, South Africa, linked to the Kruger National Park, using Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM). In this research article, we reflected on adaptive (singleand double-loop) learning and transformative (triple-loop) learning capacity emergent in SAM between 2009 and 2019 whilst also considering social learning potentials. We found evidence of preconditions (e.g. transparency) for social learning within a burgeoning stakeholder ‘community-of-practice’, likely fostering capacities (e.g. information sharing) for sustained social learning. Adaptive and transformative learning is enabled by social learning, underpinned by ongoing nested feedbacks supporting assessment and reflection, which facilitates single-, doubleand triple-loop learning. Champions exist and are vital for sustaining the adaptive management system. Executing adaptive and transformative learning aids in positive change across the range of ecological, social and economic outcomes that are essential for success in environmental water programmes, worldwide.