A New Study of the Title of the Reigning Dynasty during the Pre-Qing Period

What was the title of the reigning dynasty from the time when Nurhachi assumed the title of “khan” to the time when Hong Taiji declared himself emperor? There remains controversy among scholars as to whether the title “Jin” 金 or “Later Jin” 後金 was used, or if both were in use during different periods. Based on voluminous historical sources dating to the pre-Qing period, which have been published and even digitized in recent years, in addition to conducting the first comprehensive search of relevant Manchu and Chinese sources as well as artifacts, the authors have confirmed that there is no conclusive evidence proving that “Later Jin” was once used as the title of the reigning dynasty. Based on over a hundred instances of official usage of the title “Jin,” the authors have also concluded that the title of the reigning dynasty remained “Jin” during the entire pre-Qing period and that “Tianming” (Mandate of Heaven) was not the title of an emperor’s reign.