Challenging racism and sexism : alternatives to genetic explanations

In 1989, J.P. Rushton presented a paper at the American Academy for the Advancement of Science outlining his now notorious genetics-based theory of brain sizes and alleged racial differences in intelligence. While defenders of Rushton's work have focussed on his right to express any ideas rather than on the content of the work itself, critics have focussed on the scientific flaws in Rushton's work as well as its racist implications. Critical responses to Rushton's ideas have been varied, from condemnation within the academy to student protesters sporting measuring-tape headbands. The Genes and Gender Collective responded to Rushton's work by organizing a symposium at the following AAAS annual meeting, presenting analyses of human behaviour which do not revert to genetic determinism. Challenging Racism and Sexism: Alternatives to Genetic Explanations is a collection of papers that challenge genetic determinist thinking and expose the racism and sexism that often underlie genetic determinism as a theory of human behaviour. Essays in this volume reveal the flawed methodologies and racist and sexist assumptions of genetic determinist theories in various disciplines. Some of the essays analyze the historical events which accompany the resurgence of biological and genetic determinism; others describe the practical impact genetic determinist theories have on women and men in various ethnic communities. The book is divided into three parts. In the first part, assumptions underlying scientific research in biological, physiological and psychological research and clinical psychology practice are discussed. The result is a rich multidisciplinary critique of racist and sexist ideologies as they are expressed in research methodologies and in the interpretation of results. In the first chapter, biologist Ruth Hubbard shows the artificial categories evoked in the genetic discussions of "racial" differences. She points out that both the emphasis on genetic differences and the categories for differentiation are suspect. Human genes are relatively homogeneous, and most genes can be found among all ethnic groups and geographical locations. No universally agreed upon definitions exist for racial categories; racial definitions require the singling out of specific bodily characteristics (e.g., skin colour, hair texture) as having explanatory significance even though there is no reason to think that they are relevant to other characteristics like intelligence or behaviour. Likewise, although the numbers of X and Y chromosomes distinguish females and males, these biological differences are often given explanatory power despite the lack of evidence linking these chromosomes to the behavioural differences in question. The arbitrary nature of the body characteristics used to claim racial and sexual superiority of white males is highlighted in the chapter by Kaplan and Rogers which details the history of theory and research on racial differences, from Gobineau's theories of Aryan supremacy, to craniology and lower:upper arm bone-length ratios. Kaplan and Rogers demonstrate clearly that racist and sexist ideologies precede and inform research on racial and sex differences, which is then used to support these ideologies. They give numerous accounts of eminent scientists who discarded their theories of genetically-based morphological differences between ethnic groups and between women and men when the results of these particular measurements violated their presumptions with respect to ethnic and sexual superiority. Woodward's chapter on population genetics is a difficult one for someone who lacks a background in genetics. However, Woodward clearly shows the extreme reductionism required to adhere to a sociobiological, or genetic determinist stance, using a different level of analysis than the other chapters of the book. A glossary of genetic terms is provided which was very helpful for deciphering the chapter and also a helpful resource for evaluating reports of genetic research findings. …