The challenges of deep learning in artificial intelligence and autonomous actions in surgery: a literature review

Aim: Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly evolving in healthcare worldwide, especially in surgery. This article reviews important terms used in machine learning and the challenges of deep learning in surgery. Methods: A review of the English literature was carried out focused on the terms “challenges of deep learning” and “surgery” using Medline and PubMed between 2018 and 2022. Results: In total, 54 articles discussed the challenges of deep learning in general. We include 25 articles from various surgical specialties discussing challenges corresponding to their respective specialties. Conclusion: The increased utilization of AI in surgery is faced with a wide variety of technical, ethical, clinical, and business-related challenges. The best way to expedite its expansion in surgery in the safest and most cost-efficient manner is by ensuring that as many surgeons as possible have a clear understanding of basic AI concepts and how they can be applied to the preoperative, intraoperative, postoperative, and long-term follow-up phases of the surgical patient care.