Six Languages in Education—Looking for Postformal Thinking

Teachers, learners, and other stakeholders in education often use the same words but do not always seem to communicate very well. This article describes 6 hierarchically inclusive ways of knowing that shape and affect the perception and experience of learning and teaching. The model presented is based on 3 decades of research, over 1,200 student narratives and some 70 educator narratives. A way of knowing acts like a language providing a window into the idiosyncratic meanings that words and concepts are given and that lead to unacknowledged misunderstandings. Core conceptions and understandings are illustrated, major differences between the levels of thinking are highlighted, and the effect on learning is described. Many of the 21st century skills are associated with more complex ways of knowing. Study success is a major driver of development. A developmental pedagogy or curriculum therefore needs to include tasks and assessments that require and credit more complex thinking. Educating for complex thinking is not limited to higher education or to adult development but is appropriate for all ages.