What we know and need to know about physical health and mortality in non-incarcerated offenders: A narrative review

Longitudinal investigations of associations between health and offending are rare. Studies which have investigated this relationship principally focus on mental health within samples of incarcerated offenders. This article provides a review of the current evidence base on health and offending, focusing on criminological theories seeking to explain the health-crime relationship and insights from Public Health and Social Epidemiology. The evidence reviewed here suggests that the antisocial lifestyles of offenders when outside secure environments pose a significant risk to their physical health. It is likely that the antisocial lifestyles of offenders damage their health over time, and several criminological, epidemiological and medical theories are discussed to explain these links. It is clear from this body of research that community offenders form an under-researched group of offenders, with methodologically limited research conducted to date. Future directions are discussed which may facilitate the production of further robust evidence, in light of the complex causal and bi-directional nature of the relationship between health and offending. These suggestions should be viewed as a future public health challenge and should inform targeted interventions.