Cadmium pollution of water, soil, and food: a review of the current conditions and future research considerations in Latin America.

The presence of cadmium (Cd) in Latin American produced food has been in the spotlight in recent years. Regarding food safety, this element can be toxic to humans at low exposure levels, and its monitoring is a question of public health. Cadmium concentrations from different sources, such as water, soil, sediments, food and beverages were examined and discussed to address the non-occupational exposure of the Latin American population. A literature review was conducted, which considered publications from 2015 to 2020 and available in the ScienceDirect and PubMed databases. Twenty-eight papers were considered for Cd in water, forty-nine for Cd in soil and sediments, and eighty-six for Cd in food. We identify and discuss factors affecting Cd environmental behavior and bioaccumulation, the main species used in monitoring studies, and the necessity for future research. Brazil and Mexico are the countries with the most available information, whereas for some countries in Central America, no information was found. The Cd levels in food examined in these studies (mostly fish and cacao) were generally below the established maximum levels, indicating a low risk. When considering the presence of Cd in food, water, and soil, Cd fractionation and chemical speciation studies are fundamental to understand which Cd species are the most toxic. In turn, studies on bioaccessibility and bioavailability of Cd in food are also needed for more adequate risk assessment but they are currently scarce in all of Latin America.