The road towards effective governance and management of marine protected areas in South Africa: evolving policies, paradigms and processes

The efficacy of marine protected areas (MPAs) depends on their governance and management. We review their history in South Africa and recognise four periods. Period 1 (1964–1994) provided initial protection but was based on exclusionary, preservationist policies, was ad hoc in the absence of a national plan, and neglected social considerations. Period 2 (1994–2010) began introducing people-oriented policies, focused on ecosystems rather than species, and was strengthened by the formation of a national coordinating body. Period 3 (2010–2019) heralded improvements in design, ecosystem representation and stakeholder engagement, yet fractured governance hindered coordination and management. Period 4 (Since 2019) added challenges in managing new offshore MPAs. Progress in achieving effective MPA governance and management was assessed over these periods for 17 components of governance and management, representing key issues for which changes could be identified throughout. Fifteen components indicated overall improvements—most notably legislation and policies, MPA establishment, planning and design, and staff training and skills—whereas progress for most of the other components was weaker. Zero net gains were recorded for enforcement and compliance, and for the staff complement. Our recommendations flow principally from components assessed as faring poorly. We conclude with eight critical needs: (1) specify detailed objectives for every MPA; (2) fast-track management plans for new MPAs; (3) improve law enforcement and compliance; (4) enhance participation of adjacent communities and other stakeholders; (5) address MPA-related social impacts and injustices, and improve benefit sharing; (6) ensure financial sustainability; (7) strengthen evaluations of management effectiveness; and (8) improve cooperation between government authorities responsible for MPAs and fisheries.