From nearly white to brown: nation, identity, and the racialization of Muslim Americans

ABSTRACT Scholars debate elites’ capacity to shape the parameters of national belonging. Hard constructivists believe elites have tremendous leverage, while soft constructivists caution that elites face severe constraints in this process. We address this debate in our study of Muslim Americans. Recently political elites tried to integrate Muslim Americans by expanding an ascriptive interpretation of American identity: from WASP, to white Christian, to pan-Abrahamic. This attempted incorporation was met by a potent wave of Islamophobia after 11 September 2001. One consequence of this rejection was an increasing number of Muslim Americans identifying themselves as, and being perceived by others as, people of colour. Elites underestimated deeply-entrenched beliefs that resist expanding American-ness beyond white Christians. They face fewer constraints integrating new groups into the non-white category. We contend the debate over hard and soft construction must be circumscribed by the particular aspects or features elites are attempting to objectify.