Spatial and temporal distribution of natural ponds, using GIS and remote sensing, Northeast of Iraq

Abstract The biggest nine well-known natural ponds in the highest elevations of Zagros thrust zone in the northeast of Erbil, Kurdistan region, Iraq, have been taken and synthesized with RS and GIS techniques to reveal the spatial and temporal distribution of the ponds, and to explore the sustainability of these ponds. ENVI 5.1 software was used to detect pond surface area and shapes in different seasons and for 33 years. RS was used to detect land surface temperature (LTS), but GIS was used for maps and calculations of pond area variation. Geology of the area is very complex; formations are different in genetics, age, thickness, and extensions. The regional tectonic forces highly deformed the succession and extension of the geologic formations. i.e. The forces that had made the mountains were very strongly affected the layers and the geologic formations, resulting in many types of folds, faults, overturning layers, thrusting, and many other highly deformed structures. Water-bearing formations are of restricted extensions due to the deformations, with limited and local productivity. The aquifers moved to face impermeable rocks or surface, discharging springs, ponds, and rivers. The ponds are sustaining permanently due to the following reasons: most of the ponds are located on semi-impermeable deposits, weather and LTS throughout the year are less than 25°C, high relative humidity and low evaporation, and they are recharging by direct groundwater and snowmelts.