Translating in vitro to in vivo and animal to human

This review summarizes the recent advances in the field of investigative toxicology with a particular focus on the toxicological endpoint drug-induced liver injury. Despite the recent progress in the field of microphysiological systems with human cells, tissues, or organoids, corresponding systems with animal tissues or organoids are often lacking. These animal in vitro systems are, however, important to (1) assess the concordance with the pivotal animal toxicity studies which are mandatory before the progression to First-in-Man studies and (2) evaluate if results from the in vitro approaches are specific for an animal species or actually relevant for humans.