Identifying Appropriate Test Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities.

Accountability is a prominent issue in public education. A great deal of time, money, and student and teacher effort is spent on testing students' academic achievement and progress to evaluate the educational outcomes of schools, school systems, and states. Students enrolled in public schools sometimes take eight or more sets of standardized tests throughout their school career. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requires that all students enrolled in public schools take a reading and math assessment each year in grades 3 through 8, and to be tested at least once during grades 10 through 12. By the 2007-08 school year, the NCLB also will require testing in science at least once during grades 3 through 5, 6 through 9, and 10 through 12. As of June 10, 2003, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico had federally approved statewide accountability plans in accordance with the NCLB (Webb & Aspey, 2003). Despite broad implementation of assessment plans, testing varies widely within states, in terms of the amount and type of accountability. Often, outcomes measured by high-stakes assessments are tied to funding, which makes the results important to local and state school administrators. The NCLB holds states and schools accountable for their effectiveness and continuous improvement. Schools that fail to meet performance objectives can lose federal funds, and Title 1 funds can be diverted to allow students in failing schools to transfer to higher-performing schools. NCLB also has provisions for rewarding bonuses to successful schools. Because of the nature of their academic difficulties, students with disabilities often present particular challenges for administrators and educators when standardized high-stakes assessments are concerned. In the past, states have not always included students with disabilities in their assessment systems and analyses. Low participation rates of students with disabilities continued despite mandates for their being included in accountability programs required by 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001). In essence, the scores of these students and their outcomes did not count (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1999; Fuchs, Fuchs, Eaton, Hamlett, & Karns, 2000). In an effort to gain full information regarding the educational outcomes for all students, the NCLB requires that students with disabilities be included in tests to the fullest extent possible. This further commitment to gaining information about outcomes for students with disabilities recognizes the importance of this population of students and requires