Creating Culturally Responsive Instruction: For Students' and Teachers' Sakes

to concrete instructional style is the teaching process Student success is the student's and/or caregiver's responsibility any model, this one offers a common framework from which to begin to better understand and work more effectively with African American students while remaining flexible in our thinking and never losing sight of individual differences. Just as important, we must acknowledge that individuals and groups from other cultural backgrounds can and do display one or more of the characteristics, but that these characteristics, to repeat, are often more evident in a student who is African American. Boykin 's Afro-Central Model: One Framework for Culturally Responsive Teaching The culture of African Americans is an amalgamation of their African origins and the assimilation of various Anglo-European orientations to which they were exposed Culturally Responsive/ Relevant Teaching Strategies Learning styles dominate; student-centered instruction Teachers have expertise, but students can and do learn from each other; teaching is bi-directional-teachers can and must also learn from students; students also learn from each other Lectures, debates, discussion, and other teaching methods are used to teach and reinforce learning Lecture, discussion, activity, reinforcement, then testing/ assessment; several assessment options (mastery teaching) Flexible grouping prevails based on students' skills and interests Interdependence and cooperative learning are valued and encouraged among students; family-like atmosphere is promoted The instructional style is concrete to abstract, with examples, stories, and visuals/graphic organizers, to make learning relevant Student success is shared (e.g., teacher's responsibility, student's responsibility, and caregiver's responsibility). Collaboration is essential for students' success as involuntary immigrants (Ogbu, 1992). The bicultural patterns developed are those that help maintain their racial and cultural identity and help them to cope with living in a colorcoded society (Shade, Kelly, & Oberg, 1997). These patterns have been studied extensively (e.g., Hale, 1982; Hollins, 1996; Irvine &Armento, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994, 2009; Nobles, 1990). Boykin (1994; Boykin, Tyler, & Miller, 2005; Tyler, Watkins-Lewis, & Kizzie, 2006), however, clustered the modal characteristics into nine characteristics that provide concrete recommendations for creating culturally responsive teaching strategies and suggesting ways for teachers to modify their teaching styles. Spirituality is common among African Americans and has been identified as playing a central role in their being resilient and coping with historical and contemporary 10 FOCUS ON EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN MAY 2'! 1~9 oppression (e.g., slavery, prejudice, discrimination, poverty). This is a belief in a higher spiritual force or being who is ever-present in one's life and affairs. This belief represents, in some ways, an external locus of control in which faith plays a key role in explaining outcomes. A spiritually oriented culturally different student will attribute positive outcomes (e.g., good grade on an assignment, especially if the student felt unprepared) to being "blessed"; the student will be optimistic and resilient. Even though public schools may find themselves challenged at addressing spirituality because of the separation between church and state (and/or the non-religious focus in public schools), it behooves educators to be cognizant of this characteristic, even if they are not allowed legally to address it. Harmony has at least two components. First, it relates to a desire and preference to be in sync with one's environment. It is a desire to "fit," to feel welcome, and to be a member of the community. In the classroom, harmony is evidenced by students' wanting to be appreciated and respected by teachers who value their presence and participation. Second, harmony relates to culturally different students having keen skills at reading the environment and nonverbal messages. In classrooms this can take the form of culturally different students' feeling that a teacher's words and actions are inconsistent or even contradictory. For example, a teacher who compliments these students without smiling or giving the student a pat on the back might be viewed as insincere. Affect is characterized as an emotional orientation, often shown in the form of strong feelings. Affective-oriented culturally different students love strongly and hate strongly, for example. They are often sensitive, impulsive, and quick to express their feelings about classmates, teachers, and assignments. Teachers may view these culturally different students as immature and overly sensitive, as well as irrational. Communalism is a family, social, external, and/or extraverted orientation. Students for whom this dimension is strong prefer to work interdependently, cooperatively, and in groups or with at least one other student. Communalism is indicative of a "we, us, our" philosophy in which one 's primary reference group (family, friends, loved ones) is considered heavily in one's decisions. The individualistic, competitive orientation of many classrooms can be unmotivating or demotivating to these students, many of whom have been taught at home and in their community to take care of others, to give back. Teachers may view these culturally different students as overly social and lacking independence. Movement represents a desire to be physically involved and active, or kinesthetically oriented. In the classroom setting, this can take the form of students' expressing a dislike for being sedentary and showing a preference and desire for active learning experiences (e.g., manipulatives, plays, skits, simulations, field trips). Teachers may misperceive cuTtu ally different students with this characteristic as "hypcr:rtive" and lacking in self-control or self-discipline. Verve is related closely to movement. The terms "energetic" and "lively" capture this dimension. In classroorns, vervistic students are often expressive, demonstrative, and easily excited or excitable. They like novelty and tend to get bored by a great deal of routine and predictability. As with movement, teachers may misperceive this characteristic as a lack of self-control. Expressive individualism perhaps is best captured by the term "creative." Students with this characteristic are innov ative, risk-taking, and spontaneous, and they enjoy being different or even dramatic. They often enjoy creative writing, acting, and opportunities to be risk takers and to be selfexpressive when completing tasks and assignments. Oral tradition takes many forms, including a preference for oral modes of communication over other modes, as well as verbal virtuosity and bluntness or frankness. Students for whom this characteristic is strong tend to enjoy playing with words (e.g., jokes, puns, riddles, proverbs, poetry) and are solid orators and debaters. They are also likely to be frank and direct in expressing their ideas, likes, and dislikes. Teachers may view these culturally different students as talkative, lacking tact, or otherwise rude and disrespectful. Social time orientation has been studied under the broader context of "polychronicity." For these students, time is not a commodity; instead, time is social. A focus on the present, the here and now, takes precedence over the future, which is not guaranteed. These students may be challenged or frustrated in completing assignments with required deadlines and within designated timeframes (e.g., 30 minutes). Teachers may perceive culturally different students as uncaring, disorganized, and ill prepared. Table 2 presents sample strategies based on the characteristics discussed above. PUTTING THIS WORK TO USE: JAMES' STORY In the following case, James is experiencing success with one teacher but not with others (Kea & Trent, 2008). He shows interest and is well behaved in one class. What role do culture and/or personality play in these relationships, and his behaviors, interests, and achievement?