Water, energy, and food nexus with agroforestry system for sustainable development goals

OPEN ACCESS Food production program faces tight competition on land, water, energy, and efforts against the negative effects of food production on the environment [1,2]. Water scarcity becomes a global challenge that is in line with “virtual agricultural water” demand, during food production processes and embedded in national or international food trade or import [3]. Water insecurity will worsen with increasing water demand, population growth, agricultural water demand for food security, urbanization, and climate change [4]. Freshwater (approximately 80% of blue water and a large fraction of green water) is used for agricultural activities to support food production [5,6]. In addition, about 10% of irrigation water in developing countries comes from reused wastewater [6]. The division of water in agricultural activities in the era of climate change and water poverty creates antagonism caused by competition with each other for water supply. On the other side, rain-fed croplands require less water supply due to the use of only available soil water content (green water) than the irrigated crops [6].