Ethics.

The four principles of ethical behaviour are autonomy of the patient, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. The physician must strive to do what is best for the patient while respecting that person's wishes. This allows for decision-making, including withdrawal of care, using the patient's advance directives. Brain death is equivalent to death and should not pose decision-making problems. Making decisions for the patient who was never competent requires close co-operation among physicians, other care-givers and substitute decision-makers, while respecting ethical principles and the risk-to-benefit ratio. In most countries euthanasia, while controversial, is illegal. Safeguards and ethical principles for the enrollment of patients in clinical trials, the importance of informed consent and conduct as an expert witness all involve the above ethical principles and responsibility.