Social dynamics of toxic metal industry in medieval Europe: Peak District lead production, AD 600–1500

The Derbyshire Peak District in central England was one of the largest lead-producing regions in medieval Europe, yet the early history of production is obscure. Here, the authors use tooth-enamel-based lead concentrations accumulated in childhood in three cemeteries, linked to radiocarbon dates, to identify the development of post-Roman lead smelting from the mid-seventh century, with large-scale production and contamination around key mines, including Castleton, by the mid-eighth century AD. Intra- and inter-site comparisons of lead concentrations hint at the social dynamics of producer communities that may provide a benchmark for identifying lead- and silver-producing communities in medieval Europe more widely.