What are the differences between ecosystem services and residents’ perceptions? Insights from perception gap, heterogeneity, and cross-level driving mechanisms

Ecosystem services (ES) are vital for human well-being and ecological security. However, current research often separates objective measurement from subjective perception evaluation, rarely considering both aspects simultaneously or analyzing their matching relationship in depth. This study moves beyond the traditional paradigm of objective or subjective dominance and proposes a spatially explicit cognition–ecology feedback conceptual framework. We developed an integrated approach that couples InVEST model outputs with questionnaire survey data to link objective ES supply with subjective perceptions, defining their difference as perception gaps. Taking the typical karst area of Huanjiang County, China, as a case study, we quantified the potential supply and farmers’ perception gaps of five key ES, namely, food provision (FP), water yield (WY), soil retention (SR), carbon sequestration (CS), and habitat quality (HQ). We then used a Hierarchical Linear Model to determine the cross-level driving mechanisms. The findings showed significant service heterogeneity and individual differences among the five ES. Perception gaps for FP and WY were generally positive, reflecting high demand and low supply. Meanwhile, those for CS and HQ services were predominantly negative, indicating low demand and high supply. The formation mechanism of perception gap was jointly driven by environmental values and household types at the individual level, and natural conditions and location factors at the village level. The study emphasizes that differentiated governance strategies are essential to bridge multiple types of perception gaps, thereby fostering a virtuous cycle of cognition and ecological sustainability through enhanced awareness, optimized service provision, and improved policy communication.