Phenotypic plasticity in conservation aquaculture: Insights, challenges, and future directions

Phenotypic plasticity, which enables single genotypes to produce diverse phenotypes in response to changing conditions, facilitates individuals to persist in dynamic environments fostering divergence within populations and driving diversification. Its role is particularly relevant in the context of conservation aquaculture, especially in reintroduction programs, where simplified rearing environments can alter the natural development of functional phenotypic traits. Identifying phenotypic alterations and elucidating the mechanisms associated with these changes can assist managers in refining strategies employed in rearing settings, and improving the prospects of post-release survival. By relying on the available literature on marine organisms, this review provides an overview of the implications of phenotypic plasticity for conservation aquaculture programs. Specifically, the following points are examined: (i) how hatchery environments can alter wild phenotypes, particularly in terms of behavioural and morphological traits, (ii) how the introduction of ecologically relevant stimuli into rearing environments can mitigate these effects, and (iii) how such approaches can provide strategies to enhance the success of reintroduction actions. Finally, several key questions are proposed to inspire new research directions for critically assessing the implications of phenotypic plasticity in successful conservation aquaculture programs.