Spatial inequalities and driving factors in food accessibility: Integrating online and offline grocery services in South Korea

Food accessibility is a critical component for urban residents, and the rapid socio-demographic and digital transformation has fundamentally reshaped how people access food. This study investigates the spatial and socio-demographic disparities in food accessibility across South Korea by integrating online and offline grocery access. We propose a nationwide comprehensive food accessibility index, using the Gaussian Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (2SFCA) method to analyze spatial gaps and influencing factors. By integrating spatial network analysis and logistics data from major e-commerce platforms, this study evaluates the spatial distribution of food accessibility and identifies driving factors using multiple linear regression analysis. The key findings are as follows: First, online grocery delivery services exacerbate spatial inequalities rather than mitigating challenges to food accessibility. Second, the findings highlight a non-linear relationship between food accessibility and the percentage of National Basic Livelihood Security (NBLS) recipients, suggesting a threshold beyond which increased economic vulnerability corresponds to decreased accessibility. Lastly, we found a negative relationship between the food accessibility index and the ratio of elderly residents. These findings reveal a policy blind spot in current income-based assistance and highlight the need for refined targeting in the Agrifood Voucher program, ensuring support reaches the most deprived areas. By analyzing inequalities across regional, age, and income dimensions, this study underscores the need for integrated offline-online policy frameworks and targeted policy recommendations aimed at effectively addressing food accessibility challenges and promoting equitable access to nutritious food for all residents.