Measuring urban–rural integration through the lenses of sustainability and social equity: Evidence from China

Rapid urbanization and industrialization worldwide have intensified urban-rural disparities, drawing resources and populations into cities and weakening rural communities. The global sustainable development agenda explicitly calls for stronger urban–rural linkages to bridge these gaps. In China, policymakers have recently elevated urban-rural integration in the national “rural revitalization” strategy, reflecting a recognition that long-term growth requires balancing urban and rural progress and ensuring social equity. Despite high-level commitment, empirical tools to evaluate integration and guide practice remain underdeveloped. A survey of 401 experts in urban–rural integration was used to develop an indicator system under three dimensions: economic development balance, social welfare equity and environmental governance coherence. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses distilled six key factors: environmental governance, economic structure, social security, public services, social equality, and economic efficiency. The results highlight that factors such as efficient land use, inclusive social security and psychosocial well-being are critical to the integration process. Notably, the prominence of social security and public service factors echoes recent policy goals of unifying social insurance for migrant workers and equalizing basic services across urban and rural areas. The framework was further validated using case data from 18 designated urban–rural integration demonstration zones, confirming its professional rigor and practical applicability. Overall, the proposed framework underscores how integrated rural–urban development advances China's sustainable development goals (SDGs) and social equity agenda. By linking economic, social and environmental indicators, it provides a systematic tool to monitor progress toward SDGs and common prosperity. This work fills a theoretical gap by framing urban–rural integration through a social-fairness lens and offers policymakers guidance on inclusive urbanization. In line with these findings, policy interventions should target key areas, such as rural housing, public services, digital infrastructure, land transfer mechanisms, and rural talent.