Monitoring mangrove responses to seasonal changes, hurricane-induced disturbance, and recovery in the South Florida Everglades: A spatio-temporal analysis of decade-long (2013–2023) Landsat-8 observations

Mangrove forests play a critical role in coastal ecosystems by buffering shorelines against the destructive forces of storms and storm surges, but in doing so, they often endure significant structural damage, including defoliation, tree snapping, and branch loss. Using decade-long remote sensing Landsat 8 data, we calculated the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) to assess patterns and trends within the decade-long time series for each index in mangrove forests of southwestern Florida Everglades. Before calculating NDVI and NDMI, we cloud-filtered and calculated the monthly spectral means of the study region from March 2013 to March 2023. Using both NDVI and NDMI, we found seasonal variations in the value of both indices, in which the value increased during the wet season and decreased during the dry season of the Everglades. We also detected the impact of Hurricane Irma on mangroves in 2017 due to a sudden drop in the indices’ values right after the storm. The time series showed a slow recovery of indices values compared to pre-storm values. Using an exponential recovery model, we calculated that most mangrove areas recovered within two to four years. However, some small mangrove areas show no recovery, which we attribute to saltwater ponding and areas without freshwater flow and hydrological connectivity.