In vivo, in vitro, and in silico toxicology studies of nanoplastics and their modeling.

Nanoplastics (NPs) are nanoscale plastic particles that pose possible risks to health and the environment. Therefore, the study of their toxicity is critical for regulating their use, traceability, and impact assessment. Despite their prevalence in the life cycle, research on NP toxicity remains limited due to their diverse sources, routes of exposure, and increasing presence in nature. Moreover, regulatory frameworks lack adequate characteristic values to detect NPs in food and the environment, and there are currently no defined thresholds for harmful particles. This review examines key parameters in toxicity studies of NPs, focusing on in vivo, in vitro, in silico, and modeling approaches, as well as uptake pathways. NP analysis involves three basic steps: pretreatment, identification, and quantification. In these steps, parameters such as size, shape, zeta potential, surface charge, and density play important roles. Combining these approaches offers complementary insights, improving the understanding of NP toxicity. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive toxicity studies to inform regulations and reduce the risks associated with NPs in various contexts.