Real-time beat-to-beat pulse wave velocity estimation: a quality-driven approach using laser Doppler vibrometry.

Arterial stiffness, a key cardiovascular risk marker, is typically assessed via carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cf-PWV), the gold-standard method. In this study, we introduce CAPE (Continuous Automatic PWV Estimation), an innovative framework for near real-time cf-PWV estimation based on beat-to-beat analysis of laser-Doppler vibrometry (LDV) signals. CAPE integrates automatic fiducial point detection, systematic signal quality control, and a cross-channel strategy to provide a highly reliable assessment of cf-PWV. The framework was evaluated using LDV signals acquired from 100 patients with mild to moderate essential hypertension, using a multichannel laser vibrometry system. CAPE calculates cf-PWV as the ratio of carotid-femoral distance to pulse transit time (PTT), which is the delay between carotid and femoral fiducial points. These points are detected using template-matching on the second derivative of LDV displacement signals. Signal quality in CAPE is ensured through an integrated quality assessment based on the number of automatically detected carotid-femoral peaks, which assigns confidence scores (acceptable or excellent) to the PWV measurements. When validated against the gold-standard applanation tonometry, CAPE achieved a mean bias of 0.25 ± 0.77 m/s, demonstrating high reliability and precision. The optimized framework estimates cf-PWV in 3 s, making CAPE ideal for clinical applications requiring real-time cardiovascular assessment.