Immunotherapy in metastatic prostate cancer.

Over the last 15 years, immunotherapy has revolutionised treatment paradigms and improved outcomes in a range of malignancies. Despite these advances, the role of immunotherapy in standard prostate cancer (PCa) management is limited, and Sipuleucel-T is the only approved immunotherapeutic agent. This article reviews the role of checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), T-cell engagers (TCEs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells in PCa treatment. Phase II/III trials of ICIs as monotherapy or combination treatment have been negative to date. Early phase data for TCE are promising, but the feasibility of adoption of TCEs into the clinic will depend on overcoming neutralising anti-drug antibodies and limiting toxicities. CAR-T cells have demonstrated feasibility and acceptable safety profiles in early phase clinical trials, and it is hoped that the ongoing development of later-generation constructs and therapeutic combinations will enhance outcomes.