The effect of motorcycle park-and-ride on the performance of Transit-Oriented Development and transit ridership: a case study of Greater Jakarta

Integrating land use and transportation systems, notably through the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) paradigm, is increasingly vital in urban metropolitan regions. Park-and-Ride (P&R) facilities are integral parts of TOD, facilitating seamless transition from private vehicles to public transit, which through to mitigate traffic congestion in urban areas. Employing a quantitative data analysis that combines primary surveys and secondary data collection, this study assesses the performance of TOD stations in Greater Jakarta (GJ), with a specific focus on the impact of formal and informal P&R provisions. A node-place model is developed, that encompasses both formal and informal P&R spaces, to analyse the relationships between land use activities and transportation accessibility at TOD stations. The findings reveal that P&R facilities, particularly informal motorcycle parking, positively influence transit ridership. Integrating P&R improves transit accessibility, particularly for motorcycle users facing limited public transport coverage. The study highlights the role of P&R facilities in supporting sustainable urban mobility and identifies key factors influencing TOD performance. Based on modelling and data analysis, the study proposes policy interventions, including optimizing land use, enhancing pedestrian networks, and integrating transportation accessibility, with a particular focus on effectively managing both formal and informal P&R facilities for cars and motorcycles.