Supercritical CO2 extraction of oil from fruit seed by-product: advances, challenges, and pathways to commercial viability.

Global fruit production generates approximately 0.9 billion tons annually; however, nearly one-third of this yield is lost or wasted during post-harvest handling and processing. Among the underutilized by-products are fruit seeds, which represent a low-cost and valuable source of oils rich in bioactive compounds. These oils hold promising applications in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries due to their functional and nutritional properties. To realize this potential, efficient and sustainable extraction technologies are essential. Supercritical fluid extraction, particularly with carbon dioxide (SFE-CO₂), has gained considerable attention as a green, nontoxic, and scalable method for the extraction of high-value oils from plant-based materials. This review provides a comprehensive overview of SFE-CO₂ application in the extraction of fruit seed oils, discussing their chemical profiles and the influence of operating parameters on extraction efficiency. By promoting the recovery of high-value compounds from low-cost biomass, SFE-CO₂ supports both economic and environmental objectives, aligning with circular economy principles. The review also identifies current challenges and future opportunities for optimization of this green extraction technology in industrial applications.