Development of a mental model questionnaire framework: a systematic approach to measuring mental models in automated driving

As Advanced Driver Assistance Systems evolve, new technologies are regularly introduced to the market. These technologies often differ significantly in operational functionality, communication methods, and limitations, even within the same SAE automation level. These variations can have critical safety implications, which highlight the importance of accurately assessing users’ mental models to identify potential safety gaps and optimize product communication strategies. While existing mental model questionnaires provide valuable insights, their applicability is often restricted to specific automation levels and system versions and are therefore limited in their use across diverse systems. This paper addresses this limitation by presenting a flexible questionnaire framework designed to assess users’ mental models across different levels of automation. For this purpose, a qualitative content analysis was conducted to systematically extract key information relevant to system usage from user manuals of SAE Level 2 and Level 3 automated systems. These insights guided the development of a questionnaire structure that is adaptable to the specifications of individual systems. Example items for Level 2 and Level 3 systems were created and validated through expert review (n = 4) and a quantitative online study (n = 1023). The results confirm that the proposed framework provides a valid and adaptable tool for designing mental model questionnaires tailored to specific systems, facilitating consistent assessment and comparison of system understanding across diverse automated driving technologies. This framework represents a significant step toward improving the evaluation of user interaction with automated systems and supporting the safe implementation of these technologies.