Integrated Seismic Refraction, Reflection, and Rayleigh Wave Imaging at Kilbourne Hole, New Mexico: Implications for Lunar Subsurface Exploration

Maars are volcanoes with a central crater surrounded by an ejecta ring formed through surface explosive processes from underlying magma interacting with fluids. The study of terrestrial maar volcanoes, as analogs to explosive volcanic vents on the Moon and other planets, can improve our understanding of planetary volcanism and evolution. In this study, we conducted a series of geophysical experiments at Kilbourne Hole Maar, New Mexico, a well-preserved crater used for both science and crewed exploration lunar analog studies. The surveys included multiple active source seismic lines that sampled the geological units of both the crater rim and floor. We demonstrate the effectiveness of shallow seismic reflection methods integrated with P wave refraction and surface wave analysis to determine the elastic properties and create detailed near-surface structural models in a terrestrial volcanic setting. The reflection profiles capture the top-down strata of the crater rim. The velocity changes derived from independent inversions of refraction travel times and surface wave dispersions indicate varying (6–15 m) ash thickness around the rim and reveal the presence of high-velocity anomalies in possible connection with crater collapse beneath the crater floor. Additionally, we estimate a base surge volume of approximately $6.4\times {10}^6$ $m^3$ present on the rim. The integrated results highlight the potential for characterizing the subsurface of planetary bodies in greater detail and provide high-fidelity data simulations for astronaut training. The operational insights serve as a valuable guideline for future crewed lunar missions and contribute to the development of strategies for optimizing planetary exploration.