Inorganic and hybrid nanomaterials for NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided therapy of Glioblastoma and perspectives.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most invasive and lethal brain tumor, with limited therapeutic options due to its highly infiltrative nature, resistance to conventional therapies, and blood-brain barriers. Recent advancements in near-infrared II (NIR-II) fluorescence imaging have facilitated greater tissue penetration, improved resolution, and real-time visualization of GBM, providing a promising approach for precise diagnosis and treatment. The inorganic and hybrid NIR-II fluorescent materials have developed rapidly for NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided diagnosis and therapy of many diseases, including GBM. Herein, we offer a timely update to explore the contribution of inorganic/hybrid NIR-II fluorescent nanomaterials, such as quantum dots, rare-earth-doped nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, and metal nanoclusters in imaging-guided treatment for GBM. These nanomaterials provide high photostability, strong fluorescence intensity, and tunable optical properties, allowing for multimodal imaging and enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, their integration with modern therapeutic strategies, such as photothermal therapy, chemodynamic therapy, photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy, has shown significant potential in overcoming the limitations of traditional treatments. Looking forward, future advancements including safe body clearance, long-term biocompatibility, efficient BBB penetration, and extended emission wavelengths beyond 1500 nm could enhance the theranostic outcomes. The integration of dual imaging with immunotherapy and AI-driven strategies will further enhance precision and accelerate the clinical translation of smart theranostic platforms for GBM treatment.