Cytogenetics of insects in the era of chromosome-level genome assemblies.

Over the past few years, a revolution has occurred in cytogenetics, driven by the emergence and spread of methods for obtaining high-quality chromosome-level genome assemblies. In fact, this has led to a new tool for studying chromosomes and chromosomal rearrangements, and this tool is thousands of times more powerful than light microscopy. This tool has revolutionized the cytogenetics of many groups of insects for which previously karyotype information, if available at all, was limited to the chromosome number. Even more impressive are the achievements of the genomic approach for studying the general patterns of chromosome organization and evolution in insects. Thus, it has been shown that rapid transformations of chromosomal numbers, which are often found in the order Lepidoptera, are most often carried out in the most parsimonious way, as a result of simple fusions and fissions of chromosomes. It has been established that these fusions and fissions are not random and occur independently in different phylogenetic lineages due to the reuse of the same ancestral chromosomal breakpoints. It has been shown that the tendency for chromosome fissions is correlated with the presence in chromosomes of the so-called interstitial telomeres, i. e. telomere-like structures located not at the ends of chromosomes, but inside them. It has been revealed that, in most insects, telomeric DNA is not just a set of short repeats, but a very long sequence consisting of (TTAGG)n (or other telomeric motifs), regularly and specifically interrupted by retrotransposons, and the telomeric motifs are diverse in terms of their length and nucleotide composition. The number of high-quality chromosome-level genome assemblies available for insects in the GenBank database is growing exponentially and now exceeds a thousand species. Therefore, the exceptional prospects for using genomic data for karyotype analysis are beyond doubt.