Distribution of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and health risk assessment of soil in an island province in the Philippines.

Soil contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) is a global concern due to its hidden nature and the health risks it poses to humans. This study assessed the concentrations of PTEs, including As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn, in the soil of an island province in the Philippines with a history of mining disasters, and estimated the potential health risks via three exposure pathways: incidental ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation. The median concentrations of cadmium (0.750 mg kg^-1), chromium (64.0 mg kg^-1), copper (407.5 mg kg^-1), nickel (24.0 mg kg^-1) and lead (13.5 mg kg^-1) in the soil exceeded international safety limits by factors of 250, 1, 6, 480, and 135, respectively. All target hazard quotients for children at all sites, and for adults at two sites, exceeded the threshold of 1, indicating potential non-cancer risks. For cancer risk (CR), all CR values for both children and adults across all sites surpassed the threshold of 1 × 10^-4, with the highest CR recorded at a site with an abandoned mine. Monte Carlo simulations in the probabilistic risk assessment revealed that Cr had the greatest impact on health risks from PTE exposure, with children showing the highest vulnerability. These findings are crucial for risk communication, guiding long-term remediation efforts, and health interventions related to soil PTE exposure.