Risk assessment of heavy metal contamination in air, water, soil, and crops adjacent to a spent lead-acid battery storage facility

China’s recent recognition as the largest producer and consumer of lead-acid batteries (LABs) underscores the need for increased efforts in controlling pollution. Existing environmental risk assessment (ERA) studies are focused on recycling processes, and they often neglect the storage phase of spent LABs. Hence, we delves into ERA near a Chongqing-based storage facility for spent LABs, employing exposure assessment and health risk assessment (HRA). Although the concentrations of heavy metals in the air, surface water, and soil remained below the standard limits, those of Pb, Cr, and As in vegetables surpassed these values. The exposure assessment showed that children's total average daily exposure to heavy metals was 1.36 ~ 1.51 times higher than adults’, primarily through vegetable ingestion. Furthermore, HRA signified that environmental exposure near the spent LAB storage facility posed unacceptable noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks for both adults and children. Cr, As, and Sb were the main contributors to noncarcinogenic risk, whereas Cr, Cd, Ni, and As were the main contributors to unacceptable carcinogenic risks. Corroborating the exposure assessment results, vegetable ingestion was the primary exposure route leading to both noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks. Overall, this study provides reference information for environmental risk prevention and control during spent LAB storage.