A comprehensive environmental analysis of olive oil production in Apulia, Italy

The increasing demand for Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) and the need for sustainable agricultural practices underscore the importance of assessing the environmental impacts of its production. This study evaluates the environmental burdens of EVOO production in the Barletta-Andria-Trani (BAT) province of Apulia, Italy, using the Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Additionally, this study examines the effect on biodiversity loss and soil-based ecosystem services to provide a comprehensive environmental analysis. Six scenarios were analysed. Agricultural activities—particularly excessive fertiliser use (up to 77.10 kg N·ha⁻¹) and diesel consumption during harvesting (up to 7761 kg·ha⁻¹)—emerged as the primary contributors to environmental burdens. Scenarios utilising by-products, such as vegetation water, showed lower impacts in categories like global warming terrestrial and freshwater eutrophication. Biodiversity loss, quantified using the Potentially Disappeared Fraction, was mainly driven by land transformation rather than land use, with scenario A1 showing the highest impact (around 3.25·10⁻¹¹ PDF*year). Regarding soil-based ecosystem services, all scenarios exhibited similar performance in soil erosion control (55.33 t soil), with minor variations in carbon sequestration (4.82–5.40 t C·ha⁻¹) due to differences in biomass pruning. Water purification potential varied significantly, with N losses ranging from 1.01 to 131.46 kg N, depending on the fertilisation regime. These results highlight the urgent need for sustainable agricultural practices and circular economy strategies to mitigate environmental impacts and enhance ecosystem services. Optimising fertilisation strategies and adopting alternative harvesting methods could significantly reduce environmental burdens while maintaining productivity and profitability.