On Penetrance Estimation in Family, Clinical, and Population Cohorts.

In recent years, there has been a considerable influx of publications assessing the penetrance of pathogenic variants associated with monogenic diseases with dominant inheritance. As large and diverse groups have been sequenced, it has become clear that incomplete penetrance is common to most hereditary diseases, as numerous molecular, genetic, or environmental factors can cause clinical diversity among the carriers of the same variant. In this review, we discuss some of these factors and focus on the existing approaches to estimating penetrance, depending on the data available and their application to different data sets. We also list some currently available large-scale data sets with penetrance estimates.