Understanding organic agriculture based on coupled human-earth systems for sustainable land use and rural development in China

Organic agriculture is recognized as a nature-based innovative production system that balances multiple sustainable development goals. However, few studies were conducted to investigate organic agriculture based on coupled human-earth systems. Here we introduced a hierarchical framework consisting of natural basis, management means, and demand objectives to understand organic agriculture. We reported the spatiotemporal patterns of organic agriculture and their socioeconomic and eco-environmental correlates and effects in China. Our study showed that organic production increased from 1.124 to 2.756 million ha in 2014–2021 with the most increase in soybeans, corn, and tea. The number of organic product certificates was higher in northeastern, southwestern, and eastern coastal China, and the fastest-growing occurred in western and south-central China. Of the 14 factors, management means and demand objectives ranked by organic enterprises, organic demonstration areas, food consumptions, pesticide applications, and large-scale farming operations had greater influences on organic agriculture. The interaction of human-environmental factors enhanced their impact. Organic farming increased soil carbon sequestration and reduced greenhouse gas emissions compared with conventional farming. Although average organic yields and output values per unit area were lower by 10.5–61.7 % and 5.1–48.9 % respectively for most crops, higher yields of corn, soybeans, and tea, and output values of vegetables were achieved in organic farming. We suggest synergizing organic agricultural system management to foster sustainable land use and rural development.