Micro(nano)plastics: an Emerging Burden for Human Health.

The escalation of plastic pollution represents a global environmental and health problem. Important toxic effects have been attributed to the increasing diffusion of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) derived from the degradation of plastics. These particles have been ubiquitously observed in the environment, with humans being continuously exposed via ingestion, inhalation and skin contact. Nonetheless, the cellular homeostasis imbalance induced by micro- and nano- plastics (MNPs) in human health has been only recently shown, while most evidence and molecular mechanisms derived from studies in vitro and in vivo models. To date, the majority of available results testified the accumulation of MNPs in the cardiovascular, nervous, reproductive and digestive systems, and recently clear evidence about cardiovascular toxic effects of MNPs has been provided in humans. In this context, this review aims to provide a comprehensive update about the most recent studies reporting the effects of MNPs in different models, focusing on the available evidence in the main areas of study related to human health. Hopefully, this review will contribute to raise awareness about the toxicity and oxidative alteration exerted by MNPs, supporting the elaboration of new strategies to counteract plastic pandemics.