A holistic investigation of potentially toxic element flow in the soil-root-straw-grain continuum of a typical rice–wheat rotation system

Rice and wheat, being major food crops worldwide, are susceptible to pollution risks associated with potentially toxic elements (PTEs). However, the accumulation and transfer patterns of different PTEs within rice and wheat systems remain a topic of debate. In this study, we conducted a holistic investigation of the risk flow of seven PTEs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in the soil-root-straw-grain continuum of a typical rice-wheat rotation system. Laboratory analyses were performed on a total of 72 samples, comprising complete rice and wheat plants as well as paired soil samples. These samples were collected from nine cropland sites located in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), a highly industrialized region in China. Our results revealed that Cd and Pb levels in the soils exceeded acceptable limits. Additionally, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn levels in wheat grains, as well as Cd in rice grains, exceeded food safety standards. Based on their behaviors within the soil-root-straw-grain continuum of rice and wheat, the seven PTEs can be classified into three categories: (1) The siderophile elements, Cr and Ni, exhibited higher concentrations in wheat roots, straws, and grains than in rice. (2) The chalcophile elements, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb, showed higher contents in rice roots and straws but lower contents in rice grains than in wheat. (3) The metalloid element, As, exhibited significantly higher concentrations and uptake capacity in rice than in wheat. Our findings suggest that wheat has a greater internal translocation capacity for PTEs than rice, leading to higher contamination levels and lower risk resistances for wheat crops. This study provides insights into agronomic regulations of different PTEs in rice and wheat cultivation areas.