Dynamic interaction between lakes, climate, and vegetation across northern Africa during the mid-Holocene

Abstract. During the early Holocene to mid-Holocene, about 11 500 to 5500 years ago, lakes expanded across the Sahel and Sahara in response to enhanced summer monsoon precipitation. To investigate the effect of these lakes on the West African summer monsoon, previous simulation studies prescribed mid-Holocene lakes from reconstructions. By prescribing mid-Holocene lakes, however, the terrestrial water balance is inconsistent with the size of the lakes. In order to close the terrestrial water cycle, we construct a dynamic endorheic lake (DEL) model and implement it into the atmosphere–land model ICON-JSBACH4. For the first time, this allows us to investigate the dynamic interaction between climate, lakes, and vegetation across northern Africa. Additionally, we investigate the effect of lake depth changes on mid-Holocene precipitation, a neglected aspect in previous simulation studies. A pre-industrial control simulation shows that the DEL model realistically simulates the lake extent across northern Africa. Only in the Ahnet and Chotts basins is the lake area slightly overestimated, which is likely related to the coarse resolution of the simulations. The mid-Holocene simulations reveal that both the lake expansion and the vegetation expansion cause a precipitation increase over northern Africa. The sum of these individual contributions to the precipitation is, however, larger than the combined effect that is generated when lake and vegetation dynamics interact. Thus, the lake–vegetation interaction causes a relative drying response across the entire Sahel. The main reason for this drying response is that the simulated vegetation expansion cools the land surface more strongly than the lake expansion, which is dominated by the expansion of Lake Chad. Accordingly, the surface temperature increases over the region of Lake Chad and causes local changes in the meridional surface-temperature gradient. These changes in the meridional surface-temperature gradient are associated with reduced inland moisture transport from the tropical Atlantic into the Sahel, which causes a drying response in the Sahel. An idealized mid-Holocene experiment shows that a similar drying response is induced when the depth of Lake Chad is decreased by about 1–5 m, without changing the horizontal lake area. By reducing the depth of Lake Chad, the heat storage capacity of the lake decreases, and the lake warms faster during the summer months. Thus, in the ICON-JSBACH4 model, the lake depth significantly influences the simulated surface temperature and the simulated meridional surface-temperature gradient between the simulated lakes and vegetation, thereby affecting mid-Holocene precipitation over northern Africa.