The Course of Parental Psychological Distress in Childhood and Adolescent Depression

Objective

Investigations of the influence of parental psychological distress on depression in offspring have largely focused on maternal, rather than paternal, symptoms. This study examined how psychological distress trajectories of both fathers and mothers across their child’s preschool and primary school years relate to depressive symptoms of the child in adolescence. The aim was to assess whether maternal and paternal psychological distress symptoms develop in parallel during the childhood years and how each parent’s symptoms may influence their adolescent’s symptoms.

Method

The sample comprised 8,888 Millennium Cohort Study families. Parental psychological distress was measured using the 6-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) at offspring ages 3, 5, 7, and 11 years. At age 14 years, the child’s depressive symptoms were measured with the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ). Parallel process latent growth curves examined unfolding of maternal and paternal psychological distress symptoms and assessed whether growth parameters (intercepts and slopes) of each parent’s trajectory predicted adolescent SMFQ scores.

Results

Intercepts and slopes of maternal and paternal symptom trajectories were positively correlated, indicating parallel development. The maternal and paternal intercepts were independently predictive of adolescent SMFQ scores, as was the maternal, but not the paternal, slope after adjustment for confounding.

Conclusion

Maternal and paternal psychological distress symptoms develop in parallel from early to late childhood. Higher levels of psychological distress experienced by either parent in the early years and increasing levels of maternal symptoms across childhood predict higher levels of offspring depression in adolescence. These findings highlight the importance of early intervention targeting psychological distress of both parents of young children.

Plain language summary

Using data from 8,888 families in the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study, trajectories of parental psychological distress trajectories when their child was 3 to 11 years of age were modeled and then linked to offspring depressive symptoms at age 14. Distress levels in mothers and fathers developed in parallel across their child’s early years, indicating tightly aligned parental mental-health patterns. Higher psychological distress in either parent during their child’s early years, and a steady increase in maternal distress, were associated with more pronounced adolescent depressive symptoms. These findings underscore the value of sustained mental-health support for both parents during their child’s early years to help reduce later risk for their children.