Ambient PM2.5 temporal variation and source apportionment in Mbarara, Uganda.

Air pollution is the leading environmental cause of death globally, and most mortality occurs in resource-limited settings such as sub-Saharan Africa. The African continent experiences some of the worst ambient air pollution in the world, yet there are relatively little African data characterizing ambient pollutant levels and source admixtures. In Uganda, ambient PM_2.5 levels exceed international health standards. However, most studies focus only on urban environments and do not characterize pollutant sources. We measured daily ambient PM_2.5 concentrations and sources in Mbarara, Uganda from May 2018 through February 2019 using Harvard impactors fitted with size-selective inlets. We compared our estimates to publicly available levels in Kampala, and to World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines. We characterized the leading PM_2.5 sources in Mbarara using x-ray fluorescence and positive matrix factorization. Daily PM_2.5 concentrations were 26.7 μg m^-3 and 59.4 μg m^-3 in Mbarara and Kampala, respectively (p<0.001). PM_2.5 concentrations exceeded WHO guidelines on 58% of days in Mbarara and 99% of days in Kampala. In Mbarara, PM_2.5 was higher in the dry as compared to the rainy season (30.8 vs 21.3, p<0.001), while seasonal variation was not observed in Kampala. PM_2.5 concentrations did not vary on weekdays versus weekends in either city. In Mbarara, the six main ambient PM_2.5 sources identified included (in order of abundance): traffic-related, biomass and secondary aerosols, industry and metallurgy, heavy oil and fuel combustion, fine soil, and salt aerosol. Our findings confirm that air quality in southwestern Uganda is unsafe and that mitigation efforts are urgently needed. Ongoing work focused on improving air quality in the region may have the greatest impact if focused on traffic and biomass-related sources.