Influence of spatial presence and flow experience in a non-immersive virtual reality upper limb training system

Virtual reality technology has shown potential for rehabilitation training, and spatial presence and flow experience have emerged as two important factors for explaining the virtual reality experience. We designed a new non-immersive upper limb rehabilitation training system to analyze the effects of spatial presence and flow on the user experience in virtual reality and its acceptance of technology using a technology acceptance model. This study's results showed that spatial presence has no significant effect on perceived usefulness (β = 0.102, p = 0.062), some degree of positive effect on perceived ease of use (β = 0.197, p = 0.010), and a significant positive effect on the flow experience (β = 0.535, p < 0.001). Flow experience influenced attitude and behavioral intention at different levels (β = 0.144, p = 0.001; β = 0.372, p < 0.001), and 76.9% and 78.2% variance were observed in user attitude and behavioral intention, respectively. In a multi-group analysis, the results showed that females were more susceptible to spatial presence, whereas males' attitudes toward the system were more susceptible to the flow experience. Good spatial presence will improve flow experience and positively influence the continuous use of rehabilitation training.