Bifurcation analysis and pattern formation of a delayed diffusive toxic-phytoplankton–zooplankton model

This study considers a model which incorporates delays, diffusion and toxicity in a phytoplankton–zooplankton system. Initially, we analyze the global existence, asymptotic behavior and persistence of the solution. We then analyze the equilibria’s local stability and investigate the non-delayed system’s bifurcation phenomena, including Turing and Hopf bifurcations and their combination. Subsequently, we explore the effects of delays on bifurcation and the global stability of the system using Lyapunov functional, focusing on Hopf and Turing–Hopf bifurcations. Finally, we present numerical simulations to validate the theoretical results and verify the emergence of various spatial patterns in the system.