Curriculum effects and compositionality emerge with in-context learning in neural networks.

Human learning embodies a striking duality: sometimes, we appear capable of following logical, compositional rules and benefit from structured curricula (e.g., in formal education), while other times, we rely on an incremental approach or trial-and-error, learning better from curricula that are unstructured or randomly interleaved. Influential psychological theories explain this seemingly disparate behavioral evidence by positing two qualitatively different learning systems -- one for rapid, rule-based inferences and another for slow, incremental adaptation. It remains unclear how to reconcile such theories with neural networks, which learn via incremental weight updates and are thus a natural model for the latter type of learning, but are not obviously compatible with the former. However, recent evidence suggests that both metalearning neural networks and large language models are capable of "in-context learning" (ICL) -- the ability to flexibly grasp the structure of a new task from a few examples given at inference time. Here, we show that networks capable of ICL can reproduce human-like learning and compositional behavior on rule-governed tasks, while at the same time replicating human behavioral phenomena in tasks lacking rule-like structure via their usual in-weight learning (IWL). Our work shows how emergent ICL can equip neural networks with fundamentally different learning properties than those traditionally attributed to them, and that these can coexist with the properties of their native IWL, thus offering a novel perspective on dual-process theories and human cognitive flexibility.