Spatio-temporal patterns of groundwater level changes in southwestern Indian Punjab

The study aimed to assess the dynamic behavior of groundwater levels (GWLs) in the southwestern districts (SWDs) of Indian Punjab, focusing on the spatial and temporal distribution of waterlogged and overexploited areas before and after the monsoon seasons. The research examined GWL data spanning 48 years (1973–2020) and a geographical information system was employed to map the GWL in the region to visualize GWL fluctuations throughout the study area. The findings revealed significant variations in GWL within Punjab's SWDs during different seasons. The maximum waterlogged area was found to be 97,350, 56,080, 21,730, 52,790, 6,760, and 2,910 ha during 1973 (Faridkot), 1981 (Ferozepur), 1991, 2000, 2010 (Sri Muktsar Sahib), and 2020 (Fazilka), respectively. However, the waterlogged and potential waterlogging area is being observed in the Fazilka district covering about one-third (32.52%) of the total area during 2020. The study identified that 45% of the study area faced the risk of overexploitation, 46% was considered safe, and 9% was either waterlogged or at risk of waterlogging. Over 48 years, the study demonstrated the dynamic nature of waterlogged and potentially waterlogged areas in the SWD of Punjab, including Ferozepur to Fazilka via Faridkot and Sri Muktsar Sahib districts.