Temporal changes in procrastination in online and face-to-face learning environments

Procrastination is a prevalent phenomenon among students in higher education that results in negative consequences. Past research investigated the changes in students' procrastination primarily in face-to-face settings and reported mixed findings relying on self-reported questionnaires and discrete measurements such as submission times. In this study, we build on this research, considering both face-to-face and online learning environments when investigating changes in procrastination over an academic term. To quantify individuals' procrastination, we use deadline reactivity, an individual's tendency to procrastinate based on longitudinal data, and time proximity of submission to deadline based on discrete data. We find the significant main effect of time in the academic term on deadline reactivity and time proximity of submission to deadline, indicating that in both the face-to-face and online learning environments, students' procrastination increases as the term progresses. We also construct predictive models of deadline reactivity that could be estimated with the time proximity of submission to deadline, learning environments, and time in the academic term. Our results suggest that the instructors' efforts to intervene in students' procrastination would be more required in the second half of the academic term when procrastination is highest.