Geochemical variations in early Islamic glass finds from Bukhara (Uzbekistan)

Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The earlier centralised production system diversified, primary production sites multiplied, and the scale of individual productions contracted. Mineral soda was no longer used and instead replaced by plant ash as the main fluxing agent, affecting the chemical composition and properties of the glass. In this work, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the compositional and structural characteristics of 68 glass fragments recovered during recent excavations at Bukhara in Uzbekistan, dating to the 9th to early 11th centuries CE. This is the most extensive systematically collected and studied glass assemblage from Central Asia to date. The glass can be attributed to different origins, confirming on the one hand the diversification of glass production during the early Islamic period and, on the other hand, regional variations in the chemical compositions and network structure of soda-rich plant ash glasses. As clear archaeological evidence for early Islamic glass production sites in Central Asia is rare, regional production groups are distinguished primarily on relative concentrations of Mg, K, P, Cl, Li and Cs in relation to the plant ash component, while variabilities in Al, Ti, Cr, Y, Zr, Th and REEs and their ratios indicate different silica sources. Raman spectra suggest variations in network connectivity and Qⁿ speciation that confirm compositional groupings and suggest structural differences between regional productions of plant ash glass. The results demonstrate a clear dominance of local or regional glass groups, while revealing the importation of Mesopotamian glass, notably a high-end colourless glass type from the region around Samarra in Iraq. The new analytical data allow further separation and characterisation of novel early Islamic plant-ash glass types and their production areas.