Determinants of energy poverty: Trends in Spain in times of economic change (2006–2021)

. Average energy poverty increased during the 2008 crisis and in the period of austerity be-tween 2009 and 2014, but as the economy recovered there was a gradual decrease in energy poverty in Spanish households, a trend that would be interrupted by the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our results suggest that the socio-economic characteristics of a household are the main drivers of being energy poor in Spain. In particular, the retired and women living alone are at high risk of finding themselves trapped in energy poverty. In contrast, being highly educated is associated with less exposure to energy vulnerability, meaning that measures taking an eminently behavioural approach (provision of information and training of consumers by means of energy schooling, energy audits, tariff comparators, etc.) can improve problems related to energy poverty. Our empirical results also highlight the importance of the economic activity performed by household members in determining the probability of being energy poor, especially during periods of crisis