Children’s Contact With Fathers Who Never Co-Resided With Them and Father–Child Relationship Quality at age 9

Using a sample of 868 unmarried fathers who did not live with their children from birth to age 9, this study focused on the association between patterns of father–child contact during infancy and early and middle childhood and children’s perceptions of their relationship with the father at age 9. Children perceived significantly better quality relationships with fathers at age 9 when they had regular contact with fathers during infancy and early and middle childhood, than fathers who never saw their children. Children who no longer saw their fathers after infancy perceived more negative relationship quality at age 9. Contact with fathers at ages 1 and 5 were associated with better quality relationships even if there was no contact at age 9. Implications for policy and programs are discussed.