{"title":"通过性别高度平等的国际组织和平解决冲突","authors":"Carly Millerd","doi":"10.1080/03050629.2023.2277959","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"AbstractHow does the gender density of an international organization affect its members’ willingness to engage in non-violent dispute resolution? Many scholars have devoted time and energy to determine whether international organizations promote or prevent peace without fully considering the characteristics of the organizations themselves. In this study, I argue that international organizations in which the average gender-equality of member states is high, “densely-gender-equal IOs,” are more likely to mitigate conflict among member states. Highly gender-equal states are more likely to “demand” and utilize conflict resolution mechanisms provided by these densely gender-equal IOs. Densely gender-equal IOs are also more likely to “supply” better dispute mechanisms and influence the behavior of states in which peaceful conflict resolution is not a norm. These effects are a result of norm diffusion of peaceful dispute resolution through repeated interactions with gender-equal states in international organizations. I test these arguments using an aggregated measure of gender-equality of the IO and find support for both of my main arguments.¿Cómo afecta la igualdad de género presente dentro de una organización internacional sobre la voluntad que pueden tener sus miembros de participar en la resolución no violenta de conflictos? Muchos académicos han dedicado tanto tiempo como energía con el fin de determinar si las organizaciones internacionales promueven o impiden la paz, sin entrar a considerar plenamente las características de las propias organizaciones. En este artículo, argumentamos que las organizaciones internacionales que presentan un alto promedio en materia de igualdad de género entre sus Estados miembros, es decir, las «OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género», tienen más probabilidades de mitigar los conflictos entre los Estados miembros. Es más probable que los Estados con una alta igualdad de género «exijan» y utilicen los mecanismos de resolución de conflictos proporcionados por estas OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género. También es más probable que las OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género «proporcionen» mejores mecanismos de disputa e influyan en el comportamiento de los Estados en los que la resolución pacífica de conflictos no es la norma general. Estos efectos son el resultado de la difusión normativa de la resolución pacífica de controversias a través de interacciones repetidas con aquellos Estados que presentan igualdad de género dentro de las organizaciones internacionales. Ponemos a prueba estos argumentos utilizando una medida agregada de la igualdad de género de la OI y encontramos apoyo para nuestros dos argumentos principales.Quels sont les effets de l’égalité hommes-femmes au sein d’une organisation internationale sur la propension de ses membres à prendre part à des résolutions de litiges non violentes ? Nombre de chercheurs ont consacré du temps et de l’énergie pour déterminer si les organisations internationales promouvaient ou empêchaient la paix sans s’intéresser pleinement aux caractéristiques des organisations elles-mêmes. Dans cette étude, j’affirme que les organisations internationales dans lesquelles l’égalité hommes-femmes moyenne des États membres est élevée, les « OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense », atténueront plus souvent les conflits entre les États membres. Les États à l’égalité hommes-femmes forte « exigeront » plus souvent des mécanismes de résolution des conflits proposés par ces OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense et y auront plus souvent recours. Les OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense auront aussi plus de chance de « fournir » de meilleurs mécanismes pour les conflits et d’influencer le comportement des États dans lesquels la résolution pacifique des conflits n’est pas la norme. Ces effets découlent de la diffusion des normes de la résolution des litiges pacifique par des interactions répétées avec des États qui prônent l’égalité des sexes dans les organisations internationales. J’évalue ces arguments à l’aide d’une mesure totale de l’égalité hommes-femmes des OI et trouve des éléments pour venir étayer mes deux principaux arguments.Keywords: Conflict resolutiongenderinternational organizations Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Data Availability StatementData and Replication Files may be found here: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/internationalinteractions. Please address any questions about the data to the corresponding author.Notes1 In this paper, conflict is conceptualized as a militarized interstate dispute (MID), rather than diplomatic conflict or all-out war.2 The term “densely gender-equal” draws from Pevehouse and Russett (Citation2006) conceptualization of “densely democratic” international organizations. These IOs are comprised of mostly democratic states. My definition of densely gender-equal IOs are those in which the members are, on average, highly gender-equal.3 “Sex and gender are two different concepts. Whereas sex is biological female-ness or male-ness, gender is a social construction of masculine and feminine behavioral expectations related to the perception of biological maleness and femaleness” (Sjoberg, Kadera, and Thies Citation2018, 81).4 In 1989, ICRPBC had a gender equality score of .509. In 2002, it climbed to .635. At the last point in my constructed dataset, 2014, ICRPBC had a gender equality score of .660.5 Version 3c of the data contains dyadic information on state membership; its unit of observation is the dyad-year and codes states’ corresponding joint membership in a particular IO. There are 918,341 observations for the full 1816–2014 period of observation. In the state membership version of this data, there are 19,333 observations for the 1816–2014 period.6 Politically relevant dyads are those in which at least one state is a one major power or the states in the dyad are contiguous (Lemke and Reed Citation2001).7 I test the impact of higher membership in densely gender-equal IOs on probability of initiating a fatal MID or being a part of a dyadic fatal MID (see Supplementary Appendices 4 and 5) as a robustness check for the full sample of MIDs. Results are consistent with the sample containing all MIDs.Additional informationFundingThe author declares no funding.","PeriodicalId":51513,"journal":{"name":"International Interactions","volume":" 16","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5000,"publicationDate":"2023-11-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"Peaceful Conflict Resolution through Densely Gender-Equal International Organizations\",\"authors\":\"Carly Millerd\",\"doi\":\"10.1080/03050629.2023.2277959\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"AbstractHow does the gender density of an international organization affect its members’ willingness to engage in non-violent dispute resolution? Many scholars have devoted time and energy to determine whether international organizations promote or prevent peace without fully considering the characteristics of the organizations themselves. In this study, I argue that international organizations in which the average gender-equality of member states is high, “densely-gender-equal IOs,” are more likely to mitigate conflict among member states. Highly gender-equal states are more likely to “demand” and utilize conflict resolution mechanisms provided by these densely gender-equal IOs. Densely gender-equal IOs are also more likely to “supply” better dispute mechanisms and influence the behavior of states in which peaceful conflict resolution is not a norm. These effects are a result of norm diffusion of peaceful dispute resolution through repeated interactions with gender-equal states in international organizations. I test these arguments using an aggregated measure of gender-equality of the IO and find support for both of my main arguments.¿Cómo afecta la igualdad de género presente dentro de una organización internacional sobre la voluntad que pueden tener sus miembros de participar en la resolución no violenta de conflictos? Muchos académicos han dedicado tanto tiempo como energía con el fin de determinar si las organizaciones internacionales promueven o impiden la paz, sin entrar a considerar plenamente las características de las propias organizaciones. En este artículo, argumentamos que las organizaciones internacionales que presentan un alto promedio en materia de igualdad de género entre sus Estados miembros, es decir, las «OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género», tienen más probabilidades de mitigar los conflictos entre los Estados miembros. Es más probable que los Estados con una alta igualdad de género «exijan» y utilicen los mecanismos de resolución de conflictos proporcionados por estas OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género. También es más probable que las OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género «proporcionen» mejores mecanismos de disputa e influyan en el comportamiento de los Estados en los que la resolución pacífica de conflictos no es la norma general. Estos efectos son el resultado de la difusión normativa de la resolución pacífica de controversias a través de interacciones repetidas con aquellos Estados que presentan igualdad de género dentro de las organizaciones internacionales. Ponemos a prueba estos argumentos utilizando una medida agregada de la igualdad de género de la OI y encontramos apoyo para nuestros dos argumentos principales.Quels sont les effets de l’égalité hommes-femmes au sein d’une organisation internationale sur la propension de ses membres à prendre part à des résolutions de litiges non violentes ? Nombre de chercheurs ont consacré du temps et de l’énergie pour déterminer si les organisations internationales promouvaient ou empêchaient la paix sans s’intéresser pleinement aux caractéristiques des organisations elles-mêmes. Dans cette étude, j’affirme que les organisations internationales dans lesquelles l’égalité hommes-femmes moyenne des États membres est élevée, les « OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense », atténueront plus souvent les conflits entre les États membres. Les États à l’égalité hommes-femmes forte « exigeront » plus souvent des mécanismes de résolution des conflits proposés par ces OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense et y auront plus souvent recours. Les OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense auront aussi plus de chance de « fournir » de meilleurs mécanismes pour les conflits et d’influencer le comportement des États dans lesquels la résolution pacifique des conflits n’est pas la norme. Ces effets découlent de la diffusion des normes de la résolution des litiges pacifique par des interactions répétées avec des États qui prônent l’égalité des sexes dans les organisations internationales. J’évalue ces arguments à l’aide d’une mesure totale de l’égalité hommes-femmes des OI et trouve des éléments pour venir étayer mes deux principaux arguments.Keywords: Conflict resolutiongenderinternational organizations Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Data Availability StatementData and Replication Files may be found here: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/internationalinteractions. Please address any questions about the data to the corresponding author.Notes1 In this paper, conflict is conceptualized as a militarized interstate dispute (MID), rather than diplomatic conflict or all-out war.2 The term “densely gender-equal” draws from Pevehouse and Russett (Citation2006) conceptualization of “densely democratic” international organizations. These IOs are comprised of mostly democratic states. My definition of densely gender-equal IOs are those in which the members are, on average, highly gender-equal.3 “Sex and gender are two different concepts. Whereas sex is biological female-ness or male-ness, gender is a social construction of masculine and feminine behavioral expectations related to the perception of biological maleness and femaleness” (Sjoberg, Kadera, and Thies Citation2018, 81).4 In 1989, ICRPBC had a gender equality score of .509. In 2002, it climbed to .635. At the last point in my constructed dataset, 2014, ICRPBC had a gender equality score of .660.5 Version 3c of the data contains dyadic information on state membership; its unit of observation is the dyad-year and codes states’ corresponding joint membership in a particular IO. There are 918,341 observations for the full 1816–2014 period of observation. In the state membership version of this data, there are 19,333 observations for the 1816–2014 period.6 Politically relevant dyads are those in which at least one state is a one major power or the states in the dyad are contiguous (Lemke and Reed Citation2001).7 I test the impact of higher membership in densely gender-equal IOs on probability of initiating a fatal MID or being a part of a dyadic fatal MID (see Supplementary Appendices 4 and 5) as a robustness check for the full sample of MIDs. Results are consistent with the sample containing all MIDs.Additional informationFundingThe author declares no funding.\",\"PeriodicalId\":51513,\"journal\":{\"name\":\"International Interactions\",\"volume\":\" 16\",\"pages\":\"0\"},\"PeriodicalIF\":1.5000,\"publicationDate\":\"2023-11-09\",\"publicationTypes\":\"Journal Article\",\"fieldsOfStudy\":null,\"isOpenAccess\":false,\"openAccessPdf\":\"\",\"citationCount\":\"0\",\"resultStr\":null,\"platform\":\"Semanticscholar\",\"paperid\":null,\"PeriodicalName\":\"International Interactions\",\"FirstCategoryId\":\"1085\",\"ListUrlMain\":\"https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2023.2277959\",\"RegionNum\":3,\"RegionCategory\":\"社会学\",\"ArticlePicture\":[],\"TitleCN\":null,\"AbstractTextCN\":null,\"PMCID\":null,\"EPubDate\":\"\",\"PubModel\":\"\",\"JCR\":\"Q2\",\"JCRName\":\"INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS\",\"Score\":null,\"Total\":0}","platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"International Interactions","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2023.2277959","RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q2","JCRName":"INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS","Score":null,"Total":0}
Peaceful Conflict Resolution through Densely Gender-Equal International Organizations
AbstractHow does the gender density of an international organization affect its members’ willingness to engage in non-violent dispute resolution? Many scholars have devoted time and energy to determine whether international organizations promote or prevent peace without fully considering the characteristics of the organizations themselves. In this study, I argue that international organizations in which the average gender-equality of member states is high, “densely-gender-equal IOs,” are more likely to mitigate conflict among member states. Highly gender-equal states are more likely to “demand” and utilize conflict resolution mechanisms provided by these densely gender-equal IOs. Densely gender-equal IOs are also more likely to “supply” better dispute mechanisms and influence the behavior of states in which peaceful conflict resolution is not a norm. These effects are a result of norm diffusion of peaceful dispute resolution through repeated interactions with gender-equal states in international organizations. I test these arguments using an aggregated measure of gender-equality of the IO and find support for both of my main arguments.¿Cómo afecta la igualdad de género presente dentro de una organización internacional sobre la voluntad que pueden tener sus miembros de participar en la resolución no violenta de conflictos? Muchos académicos han dedicado tanto tiempo como energía con el fin de determinar si las organizaciones internacionales promueven o impiden la paz, sin entrar a considerar plenamente las características de las propias organizaciones. En este artículo, argumentamos que las organizaciones internacionales que presentan un alto promedio en materia de igualdad de género entre sus Estados miembros, es decir, las «OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género», tienen más probabilidades de mitigar los conflictos entre los Estados miembros. Es más probable que los Estados con una alta igualdad de género «exijan» y utilicen los mecanismos de resolución de conflictos proporcionados por estas OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género. También es más probable que las OOII densamente igualitarias en materia de género «proporcionen» mejores mecanismos de disputa e influyan en el comportamiento de los Estados en los que la resolución pacífica de conflictos no es la norma general. Estos efectos son el resultado de la difusión normativa de la resolución pacífica de controversias a través de interacciones repetidas con aquellos Estados que presentan igualdad de género dentro de las organizaciones internacionales. Ponemos a prueba estos argumentos utilizando una medida agregada de la igualdad de género de la OI y encontramos apoyo para nuestros dos argumentos principales.Quels sont les effets de l’égalité hommes-femmes au sein d’une organisation internationale sur la propension de ses membres à prendre part à des résolutions de litiges non violentes ? Nombre de chercheurs ont consacré du temps et de l’énergie pour déterminer si les organisations internationales promouvaient ou empêchaient la paix sans s’intéresser pleinement aux caractéristiques des organisations elles-mêmes. Dans cette étude, j’affirme que les organisations internationales dans lesquelles l’égalité hommes-femmes moyenne des États membres est élevée, les « OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense », atténueront plus souvent les conflits entre les États membres. Les États à l’égalité hommes-femmes forte « exigeront » plus souvent des mécanismes de résolution des conflits proposés par ces OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense et y auront plus souvent recours. Les OI à l’égalité hommes-femmes dense auront aussi plus de chance de « fournir » de meilleurs mécanismes pour les conflits et d’influencer le comportement des États dans lesquels la résolution pacifique des conflits n’est pas la norme. Ces effets découlent de la diffusion des normes de la résolution des litiges pacifique par des interactions répétées avec des États qui prônent l’égalité des sexes dans les organisations internationales. J’évalue ces arguments à l’aide d’une mesure totale de l’égalité hommes-femmes des OI et trouve des éléments pour venir étayer mes deux principaux arguments.Keywords: Conflict resolutiongenderinternational organizations Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Data Availability StatementData and Replication Files may be found here: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/internationalinteractions. Please address any questions about the data to the corresponding author.Notes1 In this paper, conflict is conceptualized as a militarized interstate dispute (MID), rather than diplomatic conflict or all-out war.2 The term “densely gender-equal” draws from Pevehouse and Russett (Citation2006) conceptualization of “densely democratic” international organizations. These IOs are comprised of mostly democratic states. My definition of densely gender-equal IOs are those in which the members are, on average, highly gender-equal.3 “Sex and gender are two different concepts. Whereas sex is biological female-ness or male-ness, gender is a social construction of masculine and feminine behavioral expectations related to the perception of biological maleness and femaleness” (Sjoberg, Kadera, and Thies Citation2018, 81).4 In 1989, ICRPBC had a gender equality score of .509. In 2002, it climbed to .635. At the last point in my constructed dataset, 2014, ICRPBC had a gender equality score of .660.5 Version 3c of the data contains dyadic information on state membership; its unit of observation is the dyad-year and codes states’ corresponding joint membership in a particular IO. There are 918,341 observations for the full 1816–2014 period of observation. In the state membership version of this data, there are 19,333 observations for the 1816–2014 period.6 Politically relevant dyads are those in which at least one state is a one major power or the states in the dyad are contiguous (Lemke and Reed Citation2001).7 I test the impact of higher membership in densely gender-equal IOs on probability of initiating a fatal MID or being a part of a dyadic fatal MID (see Supplementary Appendices 4 and 5) as a robustness check for the full sample of MIDs. Results are consistent with the sample containing all MIDs.Additional informationFundingThe author declares no funding.
期刊介绍:
International Interactions is a leading interdisciplinary journal that publishes original empirical, analytic, and theoretical studies of conflict and political economy. The journal has a particular interest in research that focuses upon the broad range of relations and interactions among the actors in the global system. Relevant topics include ethnic and religious conflict, interstate and intrastate conflict, conflict resolution, conflict management, economic development, regional integration, trade relations, institutions, globalization, terrorism, and geopolitical analyses.