Climate Change Drivers, Effects, and Mitigation-Adaptation Measures for Cities

Climate change has severe impacts on cities in many countries. This review covered climate change sources, consequences, and options for mitigation and adaptation in cities. The global rate of urbanization rose from13% in 1900 to 52% in 2011. However, the links between urbanization and greenhouse gas emissions remain complicated, influenced by factors such as demographic structure, economic growth, individual income and lifestyles, the nature of urban systems, urban form, and geographical location. These drivers cause climate-induced vulnerabilities in cities, such as drinking water shortages, health impacts, and severe extreme events. Population, urban form, and infrastructure might increase these vulnerabilities. In cities, efficient energy consumption, multi-modal transportation, hydroelectrically powered transportation, land use planning, building direction, height-spacing densification of structures, multiple centers, mass transportation, and non-motorized transportation are found as the main mitigation measures. Likewise, adaptation measures include space greening, green infrastructure, ventilation and air-conditioning, blue spaces, flood protection embankments, polders, dams, etc. Spatial planning is crucial for executing local, regional, and international mitigation and adaptation policies and agreements. To make cities and communities less vulnerable to climate change, these policies and agreements might include: how land is used and developed; how non-fossil fuel energy is promoted; and how buildings and transportation systems use less energy.